Individual Communications Mechanism and Human Rights - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2844 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Argumentative essay Level High school Tags: Human Rights Essay Did you like this example? International Human Rights Question 1 To assess whether individual communications can lead to the greater realisation of human rights, it is imperative to consider; the benefits which the individual communications mechanism (ICM) provides individuals with, a discussion of the shortfalls of the ICM and how other methods of monitoring and protecting human rights may overcome these issues. It shall be argued that the ICM, despite providing for greater access to human rights for individuals, cannot be a better hope for realising human rights than other methods of monitoring and protection. It is through individual complaints that human rights are given concrete meaning[1]. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Individual Communications Mechanism and Human Rights" essay for you Create order This statement reflects the purpose of the ICM which allows individuals to vindicate their rights at the international level[2] by making a claim to the body associated with the relevant treaty and allege a violation of their rights provided under that treaty[3]. Not all human rights treaties contain an ICM, but to the extent that it exists, it is monitored by a Committee empowered to make decisions upon complaints[4]. The ICM can be found in 4 main treaties; the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights[5], the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women[6], the Convention on the on the Elimination of All Form of Racial Discrimination[7] and the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel or Degrading Treatment or Punishment[8]. The benefits of the ICM can clearly be seen. Firstly it provides an individual with a platform which is independent of influence and bias from their State of origin[9]. The ICM has a wide ambit and offers protectio n and standing to individuals not offered to them by their domestic courts[10]. By allowing more applicants to obtain access to international law, it empowers a greater amount of individuals to assert their rights over their State and therefore changing the nature of enforcement of International rights to make it more personalised than it previously was[11]. Additionally, by empowering individuals to bring forward their own claims, theres no need for reliance upon third party approval to make claims on their behalf such as NGOs. By allowing individuals to bring their own claims, the ICM provides greater access to human rights remedies and strengthens the human rights system as individuals wont need to depend upon third parties to protect their rights. Furthermore a State will be less likely to infringe upon rights if theyll be held accountable by numerous individuals. This empowered of individuals by the ICM appears to be a step in the right. The main issues with the ICM can be s een in the requirements to bring a complaint. The State which the individual is domiciled in must be a party to the respective treaty and the individual must satisfy the locus standi and justiciability requirements (discussed below), Even if an individual satisfies these requirements, the case may be struck out by the committee as inadmissible with no appeals procedure[12]. If however an individual is successful in obtaining a decision in his favour, it doesnt necessarily mean itll be enforced as the Committee have considerably less power than that of the domestic courts[13]. Furthermore, remedies available to the Committee are limited. The Committee may make a public pronouncement of a breach denouncing the offending State[14], request the State amend the breach or award financial compensation[15]. It should be noted however that financial compensation is rarely used and isnt enforceable by domestic or international courts[16]. It has been suggested that ceding the Committees po wer to the municipal legal systems may allow for greater protection of human rights as the domestic courts would not only be more willing to uphold the rights being breached[17], but in a stronger position to do so, and therefore eliminate limitations of upholding rights at the international level. However its questionable if this is the most appropriate approach as the very nature of human rights is concerned with State infringement of rights, providing the domestic courts who are an arm of the State with such power is inappropriate. The ICM therefore has serious issues with enforcement (although the same could be said for international law in general) but it should also be noted most ICM cases are bought by NGOs[18], this further creates problems where a treaty doesnt allow third parties to bring cases on behalf of individuals, the individual may plead their case poorly or due to ignorance of procedural requirements, have their case declared inadmissible altogether. In this sense it can be argued that the ICM, by shifting too much power to the individual may deprive them of achieving sufficient protection of their rights. A look at the treaties which provide an ICM shows they have relatively similar requirements in regards to justiciability. The claimant must exhaust all domestic remedies[19] unless this requirement severely prejudices a claimant. An individual is also limited under the treaties from bringing a claim to multiple bodies to ensure effectiveness, consistency and clarity within the ICM process, it could be argued however that this restriction results in only a selection of rights being enforced rather than all of the individuals rights as a whole. Moreover, the treaties demand the individual is under the jurisdiction of a State party to the treaty which covers the breach, the State has to be a signatory and opted to be bound it[20]. This reflects the nature of the ICM which is state-centric[21], it is created by international actors to be used against States violating rights they awarded individuals. The State is central to the ICM and regrettably, this means that a State is very much in control of who may complain of a breach and of what[22]. The ICM is therefore limited by State influence which prevents the greater realisation of rights. Furthermore, the lack of domestic enforceability of the Committees decision puts the ICM under serious doubts[23]. The committees lack of effective remedies are limited, as mentioned above, to pronouncing the states liability in violating human rights[24]. It has been stated that the enforcement procedures used by the treaty bodies have had very limited demonstrable impact[25], as only 30% of replies from States display willingness to implement their views or offer remedy to victims[26]. The idea of the ICM was to allow individuals to complain against offending States but the restrictions placed upon the ICM result in a limited amount of rights being protected, the ICM does noth ing to address the underlying causes of the of the violations, merely providing remedies which are rarely enforced does nothing to bring about true protection by altering a States practise[27]. It has become evident from the discussion above, the main issues the ICM faces is of enforcement and remedies. Although the ICM has some benefits particularly owing to the ability to assert rights at an international level, the restrictions and influence placed upon the procedure by States prove to be too much of a hindrance. The alternative methods of monitoring and protecting human rights which shall be discussed below are not as limited as the ICM and can overcome some of the shortfalls of the procedure. State Reports State reports are arguably the most prevalent method used for the realisation of human rights[28]. The lack of enforcement faced by the ICM can be overcome through the use of State reports which States are obliged to submit at the Committees request[29] and allows th e Commission to monitor the implementation of International instruments[30]. Reports can be analysed and questions can be sent to the State with the intention of creating an open dialogue to resolve issues. State reports are regarded as very successful due to the publicity and attention they draw upon the offending State, which may result in international condemnation, although it is obvious some States are clearly more easily embarrassed (for example a State advocating rights compared to a State with a record of violations). State reports encourage implementation of rights and indirectly overcome enforcement issues faced by the ICM as even the drafting process allows States to reflect upon conformity with their obligations[31]. However this isnt to say that reports are without issue. Reports may arrive unusually late and vary in quality, theres also a lack of sanctions. Regardless, State reports are an effective method of monitoring and is often used as the only method to review co mpliance, this alone shows the confidence placed in this method by the Council. State to State accusations: Interstate complaints can overcome some shortfalls of the ICM. Several treaties provide for a State to make complaints to treaty bodies regarding violations by another State[32]. States are not limited by the same locus standi requirements of individuals[33] and are not bound by the same limitations as the ICM. This allows States to uphold rights within the treaties and bring claims against a violators. However it should be acknowledged that some States are reluctant, particularly for political reasons, to make accusations against other States[34]. This is not a problem for someone wishing to use the ICM. Furthermore States have no obligation to make accusations against offending States. The indirect implications is that this method of monitoring human rights should not be relied upon by individuals hoping for States to uphold their rights and the political issues of its use make it an unpopular option for States which is reflected in the rarity of its use[35]. The effectiveness of this method of enforcement stems from its use as a political force, whilst the ICM can be heavily influenced by the origin State, this method remains free from external influences and can rather serve as a deterrent. NGOs Nongovernmental Organisations (NGOs) monitor rights and pressure governments into implementing human rights principles[36] and monitoring procedures. Arguably, many of the monitoring procedures only exist today due to the persistent pressure and lobbying by NGOs[37]. In this sense NGOs shouldnt be understated as they can constantly pressure State parties and have been effective in doing so (for example NGOs have been fundamental to the development of standards such as womens rights by campaigning for the African Protocol on the Rights of Women[38]). NGOs are increasing in power and influence and this can be seen through the expansion of NGOs such as Amnesty International. This increasing influence can help to compliment the ICM as NGOs regularly offer direct assistance to individuals, and bring claims on their behalf (provided the relevant treaty allows third party complaints). The most compelling evidence for the increase in power of NGOs is seen from the increasing calls for accountability of NGOs[39]. It can be argued that NGOs provide a better hope for the greater realisation of human rights than the ICM as the increasing power of NGOs results in greater pressure being applied upon States, something which individuals (even when they have obtained decisions in their favour) cannot do, this in turn can lead to strengthening of the ICM. Reform: One of the main arguments for reforming the ICM is due to the procedural issues when considering a case, its estimated there are currently 500 cases awaiting consideration[40] with an average waiting time of 45 months from submission date the committee issuing findings[41]. In response to this issue and in regards to enforceability issues mentioned above, academic M Schmidt believes a permanent court or standing body with the power to adjudicate complaints should be created[42]. However the issue with this view is the nature of international rights, States are unlikely to approve and this may be a deterrent to ratify human rights instruments. Perhaps further education or advice should be granted to individuals as argued by Kjrum, as the main reason for high inadmissibility rates is due lack of understanding of the procedural requirements[43] by individuals. This essay sought to discuss whether the ICM could provide better compliance with human rights than other methods, the discussion above shows that although therere benefits to the ICM, the shortfalls are too great. Other methods of monitoring can overcome these shortfalls of the ICM and the natural response would be to attempt to integrate these methods, but perhaps allowing each method to grow indi vidually would the best way to ensure greater compliance with human rights law. [1] Ohchr, Human Rights Treaty Bodies Individual Communications (ohchr.org 2015) https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/TBPetitions/Pages/IndividualCommunications.aspx accessed 21 April 15 [2] Ibid. [3] A Bayefsky, How to Complain to the Un Human Rights Treaty System (1st, Kluwer Law International, Great Britain 2003) 33 [4] Alexandra R. Harrington, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Delayed Devotion: The Rise of Individual Complaint Mechanisms Within International Human Rights Treatiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, LEGAL STUDIES RESEARCH PAPER SERIES No. 17 of 2011-2012 available https://ssrn.com/abstract=1898673accessed 10 April 2015, 6. [5] International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR) [6] International Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Racial Discrimination (adopted 21 December 1965, entered into force 4 January 1969) (ICERD) [7] The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimina tion against Women (adoped 18 December 1979, entered into force 3 September 1981) (CEDAW) [8] Ibid, (n 3), p 4. [9] B Galligan, Rethinking Human Rights (1st, The Federation Press , Sydney 1997) 81 [10] Mireille G.E. Bijnsdorp, The Strength of the Optional Protocol to the United Nations Womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Convention, 18 NETH. Q. HUM. RTS. 329 (2000), 337. [11] International Law Association, Committee on International Human Rights Law and Practice, Final Report on the Impact of Findings of the United Nations Human Rights Treaty Bodies (2004) where it was stated that the output of the treaty bodies had influenced the way many national courts interpret treaty provisions. [12] OPTIONAL PROTOCOL TO THE INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS (1976); OPTIONAL PROTOCOL ON THE INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS (2008); INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION (1969); OPTIONAL PROTOCOL TO THE CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN (2000); CONVENTION AGAINST TORTURE AND OTHER CRUEL, INHUMAN OR DEGRADING TREATMENT OR PUNISHMENT (1987); INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE PROTECTION OF THE RIGHTS OF ALL MIGRANT WORKERS AND MEMBERS OF THEIR FAMILIES (2003); OPTIONAL PROTOCOL TO THE CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES (2008). [13] Human Rights Committee General Comment 33: Obligations of State Parties under the Optional Protocol (2008), available: https://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/comments.htm accessed 14 April 2015. [14] Wade M. Cole, When All Else Fails: International Adjudication of Human Rights Abuse Claims, 1976 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" 1999, 84 SOCIAL FORCES 1909 (2005 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" 2006) at 1911 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" 1912. [15] Ibid, (n 14) [16] ibid [17] Shotaro Hamamoto, An Undemocratic Guardian of Democracy à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" International Human Rights Complaint Procedure, 38 VICTORI A U. WELLINGTON L. REV. 199 (2007), 200. [18] R Smith, Textbook on International Human Rights (5th, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014) 148 [19] A Kumar, Human Rights (1st, Sarup Sons, Delhi 2002) 99 [20] per Art 1of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: United Nations, Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23 May 1969,United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1155, p. 331,available: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3a10.htmlaccessed 4 April 2015. [21] A Harrington, DONà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢T MIND THE GAP: THE RISE OF INDIVIDUAL COMPLAINT MECHANISMS WITHIN INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS TREATIES [2012] DJCIL 153, 154 [22] Alexandra R. Harrington, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Delayed Devotion: The Rise of Individual Complaint Mechanisms Within International Human Rights Treatiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, LEGAL STUDIES RESEARCH PAPER SERIES No. 17 of 2011-2012 available https://ssrn.com/abstract=1898673accessed 15 April 2015, 28-29 [23] Mose and T. Opsahl, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Opti onal Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rightsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, (1981) 21 Santa Clara Law Review 271, 329à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"331; D. McGoldrick, The Human Rights Committee: Its Role in the Development of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, (2nd ed., Clarendon Press 1994), 202. [24] Ibid (n 21), 32. [25] Heyns F. Viljoen, The Impact of the United Nations Human Rights Treaties on the Domestic Level (Kluwer Law International 2002), 6. [26] UN GA, 57th Session. Report of the Human Rights Committee, 11 July 2002, UN Doc. /57/19, vol. I, Supp (No. 40),para. 225. In 2009 the HRC estimated thatthe figure still amounts to roughly 30 per cent; UN GA, 64th session. Report of the Human Rights Committee, UN Doc. A/64/40 (Vol. I) Supp. No. 40, paras. 230-236. [27] J Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice (1st, Cornell University Press, USA 2003) 176 [28] R Smith, Textbook on International Human Rights (5th, Oxford U niversity Press, Oxford 2014) 154 [29] OHCHR, Human Rights Committee (ohchr.org ) https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CCPR/Pages/CCPRIndex.aspx accessed 15 April 1520 [30] R Murray, The African Commission on Human and Peoples Rights and International Law (1st, Hart, USA 2000) 16 [31] Ibid (n 27). [32] UNHR, Human Rights Bodies Complaints Procedures (ohchr.org ) https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/TBPetitions/Pages/HRTBPetitions.aspx#interstate accessed 15 April 2015 [33] Ibid (n 27) p 146. [34] Laboni Amena Hoq, The Womenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Convention and Its Optional Protocol: Empowering Women to Claim Their Internationally Protected Rights, 32 COLUM. HUM. RTS. L. REV. 677 (2000 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" 2001) at 685 [35] Ibid (n 27) p 155. [36] Humanrights, Human Rights Organizations (humanrights.com e.g. 2005) https://www.humanrights.com/voices-for-human-rights/human-rights-organizations/non-governmental.html accessed 15 April 2015 [37] G Alfredson, Internati onal Human Rights Monitoring Mechanisms (2nd, Koninklijke, Netherlands 2009) 680 [38] Recoomended textbook page 105 [39] S Joseph, Research Handbook on International Human Rights Law (1st, Edward Elgar Publishing, USA 2010) 133 [40] T Innes, A Critical Assessment of the UN Human Rights Treaty Body Systemsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Effectiveness (sjol.co.uk ) https://www.sjol.co.uk/issue-4/a-critical-assessment-of-the-un-human-rights-treaty-body-systems-effectiveness accessed 25/04/2015 [41] ibid [42] M G. Schmidt, Individual human rights complaints procedures based on United Nations treaties and the need for reform [1992] ICLQ 658, [43] KjÃÆ' ¦rum, Thematic Focus: The Treaty Body Complaint System, Human Rights Monitor Quarterly https://www.ishr.ch/document-stuff/browse-documents/doc_download/1069-the-treaty-body-complaint-system-hrmq3 accessed 15 April 2015

Stress in Nursing Practice - 780 Words

Stress is a common occurrence in the workplace. In health care in particular, there are high levels of stress which can have a negative impact on the environment, the staff, and ultimately the patients. Nurses are subjected to a great deal of occupational stress which in turn impacts the quality of patient care. Occupational stress can be defined as, â€Å"the destructive physical and emotional response that occurs when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities or desires of the employee† (Hall, 2004). The health care profession is unique in its ability to cause stress on its employees. Health care environments are fast-paced settings in which nurses and physicians are physically responsible for the well-being of other people†¦show more content†¦Other issues that were also identified as sources of stress included: the patient’s changing condition, workload, negative communication, salaries, and lack of teamwork (Hall, 2004). The identified stre ssors in the nursing work environment have a significant impact on the quality of care the patient’s receive. The stressors nurses are facing are causing a high turnover rate in an already nationwide shortage (Hall, 2004). Because of the stress, many nurses are seeking jobs that do not involve direct patient care which is intensifying the nursing shortage and making safety of patient care a serious issue (Hughes Clancy, 2009). With the combination of high stress levels among nurses and the lack of skilled nurses there is a high risk for error along with patient care which leads to potential legal exposure. Nurses are caring for other people’s lives and each decision made can affect that person in a positive or negative way. In today’s world, legal action is taken quite frequently, especially in the medical field. It is essential for nurses to be conscious of the stressors they are dealing with and how they are impacting the delivery of patient care. 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Themed hotel Free Essays

Themed hotel has almost fifty years history. Since the first themed hotel was established in California by Madonna in 1958,it has been developed into on of the most typical theme hotels in America. Themed hotels can satisfy customer’s spiritual and emotional needs,it has been introduced in China in 2001 . We will write a custom essay sample on Themed hotel or any similar topic only for you Order Now During the following ten years many history related themed hotels have emerged. Len Holman hotels have become more and more competitive due to the lack In diversity. TLS dissertation selects many theme hotels both In China and other countries as case of successful application of experiential marketing to analysis and study,Len order to provide marketing strategies for the further development of the themed hotel In Holman. According to my research, I advice themed hotels In Human taking the following measures to ensure a more sustainable and prosperous future. Flirts,all faceless In hotel should be focused on the same theme. Second,hotels need to put emphasis on customers emotional needs. Told,alt Is very Important to let hotel staff understand the true meaning of the hotel theme and do whatever It takes to express he meaning of the theme during their service. Themed hotel has almost fifty years history. Since the first themed hotel was established in California by Madonna in 1958,it has been developed into on of the most typical theme hotels in America. Themed hotels can satisfy customers spiritual and emotional needs,it has been introduced in China in 2001 . During the following ten years many history related themed hotels have emerged. Len Hanna hotels have become more and more competitive due to the lack in diversity. This dissertation selects many theme hotels OTOH in China and other countries as case of successful application of experiential marketing to analysis and study,in order to provide marketing strategies for the further development of the themed hotel in Hanna. According to my research, I advice themed hotels in Hanna taking the following measures to ensure a more sustainable and prosperous future. First,all facilities in hotel should be focused on the same theme. Second,hotels need to put emphasis on customers emotional needs. Third,alt is very important to let hotel staff understand the true meaning of the tool theme and do whatever it takes to express the meaning of the theme during their service. BY Iroquois spiritual and emotional needs,it has been introduced in China in 2001 . During the following ten years many history related themed hotels have emerged. Len Hanna hotels have become more and more competitive due to the lack in diversity. This dissertation selects many theme hotels both in China and other countries as case of successful application of experiential marketing to analysis and study,in order to roved marketing strategies for the further development of the themed hotel in Hanna. According to my research, I advice themed hotels in Hanna taking the following measures to ensure a more sustainable and prosperous future. First,all facilities in hotel should be focused on the same theme. Second,hotels need to put emphasis on customers emotional needs. Third,alt is very important to let hotel staff understand the true meaning of the hotel theme and do whatever it takes to express Themed hotels can satisfy customer’s spiritual and emotional needs, How to cite Themed hotel, Papers

The Renaissance Period Essay Research Paper The free essay sample

The Renaissance Period Essay, Research Paper The Renaissance period is a metempsychosis of the civilized and artistic fairy of the classical epoch. It began in Italy in the fourteenth century, but did non come the England till the nineteenth century. John Donne and John Milton were two great Renaissance poets who incorporated many of the features of the Renaissance into their Poetry. While Donne s A Valediction: Forbiding Mourning displays a cardinal feature, a usage of amour propres ; Milton s Paradise Lost has more features of the Renaissance because it shows more Renascence characteristics viz. , a usage of classical theoretical accounts, a usage of an elevated literary manner and a usage of classical allusions. In A Valediction: Forbiding Mourning Donne uses many amour propres, for illustration ; his most celebrated amour propre is of the stiff twin compasses ( l:26 ) . He compares the compasses to the psyche of the adult male and the adult female. We will write a custom essay sample on The Renaissance Period Essay Research Paper The or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The compass Donne is mentioning to is the sort person would utilize in geometry. The points may be far apart, but they are connected in the centre ( l:29 ) . The farther apart the points are, the more the compasses legs thin toward each other. She stays in one topographic point while he traces the way around, and every bit long as she remains house, he will return to the same topographic point he started from. Milton uses a Classical Model, which is the heroic poem, for the construction of his celebrated verse forms Paradise Lost. Eden Lost has many of the elements that define an heroic poem, which are: it is a long, narrative verse form ; it follows the feats of a hero or in this instance an anti-hero ; it involves warfare and the supernatural ; it begins in the thick of the action which is in medias RESs ; with earlier crises in the narrative brought in subsequently by flashback ; and it expresses all these elements utilizing an elevated literary manner. Proof of his elevated literary manner is his long complex sentences and his usage of heroic poem similes. The first 16 lines of this great heroic poem are one sentence. He besides uses heroic similes to make an image of snake pit in the readers mind. Milton s vision of snake pit is, A Dungeon atrocious, on all sides round/ As one great Furnace flam # 8217 ; vitamin D, yet from those flames/ No visible radiation, but instead darkness seeable ( i:61-3 ) . Milton besides uses classical allusions, for illustration ; he refers to Dante s Inferno ( iii:9 ) , when he says, hope neer comes ( i:66 ) . He do mention to Aonian saddle horse which is Mount Helicon, place of the Muses, in Greek mythology. He besides refers to Ariosto # 8217 ; s Orlando Furioso ( 1:2 ) when stating, Things unattempted yet in prose or rime ( i:16 ) . Donne and Milton both display the features of the Renaissance in their poesy. However it could be said that Milton s Paradise Lost is the better illustration of Renaissance poesy because it shows more of the features and manner of the Renaissance.